Introduction. Mongolian codifications of 16th–18th centuries are considered to be sources of customary law. But their structure and content prove the opposite as they were  results of law-making by rulers and contained different rules on status and credentials of authorities. One of such fields was legal procedure which becomes an object for analysis in this article. Goals and Objectives. The goal of our research is analysis of procedural institutions in Mongolian codifications and their evolutions from the 16th to the 18th century. To achieve this goal, one should analyze procedural rules in these codifications, find their common and specific features, correlate the content of codifications with political situation in Mongolia and, at last, trace the evolution of procedural institutions. Materials and Research Methods. The sources for research are late medieval Mongolian legal codifications: the Code of Altan Khan, ruler of Tumet in Southern Mongolia (c. 1588), Eighteen Steppe Laws established at conferences of Khalkha rulers between the 1580s and 1620s, ‘Ik Tsaaz’ (‘The Great Code’) issued at the Congress of Oirat and Mongol princes in 1640 with additional edicts of the Zunghar ruler Galdan Boshugtu Khan in the 1670s and, finally, ‘Khalkha Jirum’ (‘The Code of Khalkha’) issued from 1709 to 1770 by conferences of rulers of the Northern Mongolia. To study this documents a number of research methods were used, namely: source study, structure functional analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal method and comparative legal analysis. Results. The legal procedure developed irregularly during the examined period. The status and credentials of authorities in the field of justice were substantially changed from the 16th throughout the 18th century, and that was connected with political processes in Mongolia. In particular, with centralization of power in the Zunghar Khanate in the 17th century and adaptation of Khalkha rulers to new political realities under the suzerainty of the Qing Empire since the end of the same century. As for other procedural institutions, such as evidences and their search, those remained, in fact, unchanged. That could be explained by that the procedural institutions were closer connected with customary law, and Mongolian rulers did not pay attention to their adaptation to the current situation. Discussion.  However, the article is no more than a problem setting, and advanced research should include sources which still are not introduced into the scientific circulation: Code of the League of Kuku-Nor (late 17th century), court practice cases in the ‘Ulaan Hatsart’ (‘Red Notebook’, 19th – early 20th centuries). Besides that, another kinds of sources should be kept in mind, e.  g.,  Manchurian law for Mongols (‘Tsaajin Bichig’ of the 17th century and ‘Lifanyuan Tse-li’ – Code of the Qing Ministry of Foreign Affairs, late 18th – early 19th centuries), Kalmyk legislation of the 18th century, Buryat law of 18th–19th centuries. These sources could help understand which procedural institution in the law of Mongolic peoples were kept unchanged and which ones were results of reception from the Russian or Chinese law.

Introduction. The sacred nature of power is one of the main features of the empire. Since ancient times in the Chinese state the sacralization of power is presented in the religious-philosophical doctrine of the Emperor as the Son of Heaven who rules the Celestial Empire. This doctrine differs from the Sinocentrism conception in its understanding of the nature of power. Goals. The present paper examines foreign policy of the Qing Empire towards the Dzungar state and the Kazakhs with due regard of the manifestation of the sacred nature of power in foreign policies conducted by the Chinese government. The article also addresses the issue of the number of Oirats slaughtered by the Qing Empire. Materials. The research analyzes scientific works on the history of the Qing Empire, Chinese-Kazakh, Chinese-Oirat, Kazakh-Oirat relations, as well as published Chinese sources. Results. The paper shows that the sacral nature of power in the Qing Empire manifested itself in foreign policy as well. The rulers of the Dzungar state and Kazakh clans became nominal subjects of the Empire without coercion from the Chinese side. And this fact did not oblige them to become real subjects, tributaries. There was a ritual interaction that was beneficial for both sides. If a non-Chinese ruler became a nominal subject of Bogdykhan, the Empire showed soft power in relation to his people. Even in the case of a deliberate violation of its decrees, which happened in the episode of Sino-Kazakh relations under consideration. When the ruler stopped the established interaction and began to contradict the Emperor, the Empire sought to destroy him, like the case with Galdan Boshogtu Khan and his successors.

Introduction. The article considers works by leaders of the Buryat national movement M. N. Bogdanov and Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano to provide insight into the issue of capitalist relations development in Buryat society during the early 20th century. Goals. The article seeks to determine specific features of the problem formulation thereto traced in studies conducted by the mentioned scholars. The research analyzes articles of M. N. Bogdanov and Ts. Zh. Zhamtsarano published at the beginning of the 20th century. The objectives set in the article are aimed at characterizing the social and political standpoints of M. N. Bogdanov and Ts. Zhamtsarano; revealing their attitudes to the problem of capitalist relations development among the Buryats; exploring general and special points in their reasoning. Conclusions. The study of socioeconomic development of the Buryats, including that of land relations, are associated with the resettlement campaign. Russian historiography notes that the ethnic intelligentsia considered the problem at the stage of the initial accumulation of capital with its inherent social stratification and manufacturing differentiation. It is also clear that the social and political affiliation of the authors had no significant negative impacts on the course of their judgments but did determine the specificities of their views. Despite this, they found common ground in their reasoning for each of the research areas.

Introduction. The paper explores historical aspects of Kalmykia’s administrative and territorial structure with due regard of its relations to Astrakhan Oblast in the context of the Kalmyk people’s territorial rehabilitation initiated in the early 1990s. Materials and Methods. The work employs the historical descriptive and comparative research methods. It focuses on one archival document — the opinion letter of September 20–23, 1991 by Yu. Oglaev, Cand.Sc. (history) and Associate Professor at Kalmyk State University, dealing with ‘Working Papers on Territorial Rehabilitation of the Kalmyk People’ issued by the Commission of Astrakhan Oblast Soviet of People’s Deputies. Results. The article examines arguments of Astrakhan Oblast authorities aimed at undermining attempts of Kalmykia’s government to raise the question of territorial rehabilitation. Specifically, it gives some data on territorial transformations of ‘enclave’ settlements in Kalmykia before December 1943 and after the 1957 restoration of the ethnic autonomy. Conclusions. The historical aspect of territorial disputes between the two Lower Volga regions after 1957 basically rests on that Astrakhan Oblast government refused to recognize the proclaimed (reclaimed) borders (some part) of Kalmykia as of 1957. The idea of returning two districts integral to the Kalmyk ASSR as of 1943 back to the republic was articulated by Kalmykia’s executives in the Government of the RSFSR after 1957, and the era of perestroika attached somewhat sociopolitical features to the issue — only to eventually end in nothing. However, the history of territorial transformations of settlements in the border areas of Kalmykia and Astrakhan Oblast do require further scientific insights, as well as the use of distant pastures by neighboring regions — special emphasis thereto be laid on economic, environmental and land-related consequences experienced by the republic.

Goals. The article aims to give a brief review of the Draft Agreement on the lease of land plots to Russian citizens for commercial and industrial premises as a source on the history of relations between the Russian Consulate in Mongolia and the theocratic government of Bogd Gegeen. Materials and Methods. The typewritten document in Classical Mongolian is kept in the archives of the Center of Oriental Manuscripts and Xylographs affiliated to the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies (Siberian Branch of the RAS). The study employs the method of source study formulary analysis according to which the document can be referred to as an individual formulary. Results. The paper discovers that the investigated Agreement was written in 1917. It analyzes the structure and content of the document, its source characteristics to present the specific historical background of the document’s creation, the latter’s role and significance in the history of relations between Mongolia and the Russian Empire. The most important sections of the Agreement (preamble and attachments thereto) were translated by the author. Conclusions. The Agreement reflects the interests of Russian merchants and industrialists who sought to legally secure their special rights throughout Outer Mongolia, which, apparently, caused the anxiety of the Chinese Government and Chinese merchants. After the conclusion of the ‘Friendship Agreement’ and the Trade Protocol in 1912, the Mongols restrained from providing specific categories of land for quite a long time, and Russian citizens could not use all the rights under the Trade Protocol. The main representative of Russian interests in Mongolia was the Consulate General of the Russian Empire in Urga. Chronological analysis of the document gives some reason to state that the negotiation process took several years — from circa 1912 to 1917. The Agreement contains some valuable and important data on the country and its realias during those years.

Introduction. The road as a metatext accumulates variable forms of mobility which are determined by different ways of mastering alien territories. The article deals with departure in a broad sense — as pilgrimage and development of new lands. The relevance of the work is determined by the comparative approach to the study of the road tradition in Russian and Kalmyk linguocultures. Goals. The article seeks to identify and systematize protective road rituals and taboos in the Russian and Kalmyk traditions in the aspect of well-being. Materials and Methods. The study focuses on works by T. Shchepanskaya, A. Bayburin, V. Korshunkov, and N. Zhukovskaya. The main research methods employed are the comparative-historical and retrospective ones which make it possible to distinguish general and particular road safety rituals and prohibitions in Russian and Kalmyk cultures.  Chronologically, the study covers the period between the late 18th and early 20th centuries. Results. The mastering of new territories is associated with overcoming boundaries of ‘own-alien’ space, which results in that departure both in Russian and in Kalmyk cultures is characterized by increased semiotics reflected in protective rituals and certain related actions to be avoided thereto. In Russian culture, protective rituals of safety include as follows: crying/gulba, feasts, the ‘sit-down-on-the-path’ custom, farewell blessings when leaving the house. The road ritual taboos comprise any repeat of already accomplished actions, resumption of household cares, verbal prohibitions dealing with the direction. In the Kalmyk cultural tradition, the ritual of departure is accompanied by uttering good wishes and the ritual of development of new territories. It was prohibited to settle near the roads. Conclusions. Russian protective road rituals are aimed at overcoming the border of the ‘own-alien’, which can be explained by the sedentary self-consciousness of Russians. In the Kalmyk linguistic and cultural tradition, the road ritual and its ceremonial part are associated with the spatial development of the surrounding world which is manifested not only in movement but also in stops.

Introduction. The article analyzes semantic components and variants of the Kalmyk color term хар ‘black’ in folklore texts. Goals. The study investigates semantics of the color term хар ‘black’ in a linguocultural perspective. Materials. The work explores Kalmyk folktales recorded by the Finnish scholar G. J. Ramstedt during his scientific expedition to the Kalmyk Steppe. Results. The analysis reveals six shades of black and sums up its semantic constituents and variants. Special emphasis is laid on the applied Kalmyk-to-German translation means. Conclusions. The lexeme хар ‘black’ is distinguished by extensive semantics. It serves to denote animal coat and human skin colors. In personal names, it has the meaning of ‘strong, enduring’. The word can also identify an individual’s social status, e.g., хар яста күн ‘commoner’ (lit. ‘a black-boned man’). In most cases the lexeme хар ‘black’ contains negative connotations. The color black designates chthonian symbols (хар цурх ‘black pike’, хар темән ‘black camel’, ут хар күн lit. ‘tall (long) black man’).

Introduction. The Mongolian script is a prime example of the written culture of Mongols. Over the past 30 years, the Mongolian State and Government have been implementing step-by-step measures to restore and apply the Mongolian script. Goals. The survey study aims to provide an analysis on the content of each event thereto, scope of corresponding activities, and outcomes of those actions — and also identify at what level these orders and decrees are not being implemented, and what should be done to ensure that these measures be fully executed. Materials. The study analyzes decrees, orders and resolutions of the President and the Government of Mongolia. It largely focuses on the ‘National Program for Mongolian Script — I, II, III’ which was conducted by the Government since 1995. Results. The paper shows that the restoration of the national written language is one of the important tasks of the state system in Mongolia. The decree of the Small State Khural (1991) on the introduction of records management in Mongolian script in the country and the corresponding decree of the Great State Khural (1994) on the intensification of work for the implementation of this goal and the development of the National Program for Mongolian Script were of great importance for the restoration of the significance of Mongolian script. In subsequent years, the solution of the tasks was facilitated by decrees of the President of Mongolia on the celebration of the 800th anniversary of Mongolian script (2003) and on the expansion and acceleration of work on the use of Mongolian script (2018). The National Program developed in accordance with the decision of the supreme legislative body has been implemented since 1995 and contains tasks for the transition to the use of two scripts from 2025. But the measures that have been carried out since 1995 at various levels did not provide a sufficient basis for introduction of the two scripts (national Mongolian and Cyrillic ones) into the public life from 2025. However, in 2020, the practice of accelerated learning of the Mongolian script and its application began. At the moment, it is necessary to identify the difficulties that may arise when using two scripts in Mongolia since 2025. Thus, for a quarter of a century, the issue of restoring the status of the national writing system has been consistently resolved.

Introduction. For the first time the Epic of Jangar became known in scientific circles after B. Bergmann published a German account of The Song of the Battle between the Heroes of Jangar and Shara Gyurgyu the Terrible in the early 19th century. Since then, the Jangar had become known in the world as the Kalmyk heroic epic. After the publication of newly discovered songs of the Jangar at the beginning of the 20th century in Mongolia, it became known as a Mongolian epic. In the late 1970s, after publishing numerous songs of the Jangar in China, the epic became known as epic legacy of the Oirats of Russia, China and Mongolia. One of the scientific centers of China which has been actively searching for the Jangar texts for 41 years is Inner Mongolia University. From 1977 to 2018, teachers of the Mongolian Faculty undertook ten scientific expeditions to the Oirat-inhabited areas of Xinjiang. Goals. The article seeks to introduce the history and results of field expeditions to Xinjiang made during 41 years in order to record new songs of the Jangar epic. For the first time in the history of modern Mongolian studies, the paper describes the results of large-scale field works that have been carried out for four decades. During the first expedition in 1977 to Hoboksar, a University teacher Chojinjav managed to meet the prominent Oirat storyteller Yerempil and record six songs of the Jangar epic. In 1978, the expedition already consisted of three researchers and explored Bortala Mongol and Ili Kazakh autonomous prefectures. In those days, over 40 storytellers were identified and 60 songs of the epic were recorded. Each subsequent expedition brought its own results. One of the longest search expeditions took place in 1996, which lasted almost thirteen months and covered the Bortala Mongol, Ili Kazakh and Bayingolin autonomous prefectures, including Tarbagatai district. During that time, the University teacher D. Taya identified more than 40 storytellers and recorded 90 songs of the Jangar. Conclusion. Thus, for four decades, the University of Inner Mongolia was conducting systematic and systematic search works which gave tangible results — names of new talented storytellers-jangarchis were discovered, a huge layer of new and numerous versions of already known chapters of the Jangar were recorded but most importantly — scientific confirmation of the existence of a living epic tradition among the Oirats of Xinjiang was obtained. 

Introduction. The article deals with the prologue to the cycle of songs recorded from jangarchi Dava Shavaliev. In 1939, the famous Mongolist A. Burdukov visited Kalmykia and recorded the epic repertoire of Dava Shavaliev that consisted of a prologue and four songs. The songs of Dava Shavaliev recorded by the scholar were not published during the latter’s lifetime. His daughter, Mongolist T. Burdukova, made a copy of her father’s manuscript (March-April 1977). Goals. The work aims to study the prologue as an important compositional part of Dava Shavaliev’s epic repertoire. Results. The latter is yet another confirmation that Kalmyk rhapsodes — when reciting the Jangar — made use of a special expositional part called the prologue (Kalm. orshl). Being a traditional epic formation characteristic of the cyclical heroic epic of Jangar, the prologue to Dava Shavaliev’s epic cycle consists of constant themes. Proceeding from his knowledge of the epic composition principles, the jangarchi builds his narratives on a certain basis comprising structural and compositional elements, such as a description of the palace; magtal (Kalm. ‘glorification’) to Lord Jangar; magtal to Queen Shavdal; ones to the warhorse and Khongor; and a description of the palace feast. The jangarchi makes extensive use of the traditional and standardized set of poetic formulas, stylistic and compositional techniques. The observance of the established tradition kept the rhapsode in a clearly delineated tunnel of an epic narrative, without hindering the emergence of individual features. The epic repertoire of jangarchi Dava Shavaliev attests to that the Jangar epic was then a living cultural phenomenon, an important link in the epic tradition developed by many generations of rhapsodes whose talents and performing skills made the heroic epic a greatest monument of the Kalmyk people’s spiritual heritage.

Introduction. The ballad genre in Kalmyk poetry, having no national folklore analogues, is based on the Russian literary ballad of the Soviet period. The article examines ballads in 20th-century Kalmyk poetry in the aspect of genre synthesis — the ballad and the poem proper. The relevance of the work is determined by that the Kalmyk literary ballad remains understudied both in the genre paradigm and in the dialogue of cultures. Goals. The article aims to examine the Kalmyk literary ballad in its synthesis with the genre of the poem. Materials and Methods. The investigated materials are works by  N. Tamarchenko, D. Magomedova and others. Works by Mikhail Khoninov, Aksen Suseev and Erdni Eldyshev in the original and literary translations serve as sources for the study. The main research methods comprise the historical-literary, comparative methods, and that of descriptive poetics. Chronologically, the study covers the mid-to-late 20th century. Results. The study reveals, firstly, a synthesis of ballad and poem traced through the example of Mikhail Khoninov’s ‘Салькнла бǝǝр бǝрлдснǝ туск баллад’ (‘The Ballad of the Battle against the Wind’) and its poem-type transformation in Russian translation, the latter being also evident in the second edition of the original text; secondly, the genre of the poem in Aksen Suseev’s ‘Semen Nimgirov’ (Russ. ‘The Ballad of Civic Duty’) and Erdni Eldyshev’s ‘Marinesko’ gets transformed into that of the ballad when in their Russian translations; thirdly, the work identifies the prototype of Suseev’s main character. Conclusions. The ballad proves a most constant genre in M. Khoninov’s poetry, and the innovative synthesis of ballad and poem in the original text can also be found in his other work —  ‘Хальмг күүкнǝ туск баллад’ (‘The Ballad of the Kalmyk Woman’). The authors A. Suseev and E. Eldyshev wrote no ballads, and their intentions had been initially aimed at the genre of the poem. This reveals certain differing strategies of the author and the translator resulting in the genre differentiation of a selected work on the latter’s way to the reader.

В последние годы наблюдается рост тибетологических исследований. В Японии такие исследования ведутся уже давно. Их результаты были опубликованы в основном на японском языке. В связи с этим появление обобщающей книги на английском представляет особый интерес. Данная монография посвящена анализу ряда вопросов международных отношений Тибета, Монголии, империи Цин, России, США и Японии.
Книга содержит благодарности, заметки по транслитерации тибетских и китайских слов, списки иллюстраций и таблиц, данные об авторах, введение, девять глав, глоссарий, библиографию, индекс и приложения.
Во «Введении» (автор — Ю. Исихама) дан краткий обзор становления школы тибетского буддизма Гэлуг и ее влияния на монголов. Отмечается, что в XVI в. эта школа быстро распространилась по восточному Тибету и среди халха-монголов, а в XVII в. — также среди маньчжуров; в источниках относительно тибетских, монгольских и маньчжурских аристократов часто используется термин «буддийское правительство», или «буддийское правление» (англ. Buddhist government). Так автор переводит тибетское сочетание чойсид, соответствующие ему монгольское төр шашин и маньчжурское доро шажин. По смыслу и контексту это верно. Но точный перевод с тибетского означает лишь «религиозное (дхармическое), мирское (политическое)», а точный перевод с монгольского — «религия (Дхарма), государство (власть)». Теократическое правление в Тибете обозначалось как чой сид ньи дан Chos srid gnyis ldan («[владеющий] религиозным (дхармическим) и мирским»), в Монголии — шашин төрийг хослон баригч («держащий вместе религию (Дхарму) и государство (власть)»).