Introduction. This article analyzes major events in Transcaucasia's socio-economic or political history after the Mongol conquest, which had a crucial impact on the subsequent historical developments of this region. Materials and methods. The article employed historical-critical, historical-comparative, and analytical methodologies to analyze often contradictory and fragmented information in medieval sources. Results. Being interested in effective socio-economic exploitation of the region, the Great Khaans sought to make changes in the military-feudal elite squad that had formed in Transcaucasia and Iran after the Mongol conquest and to remove civil and financial powers from this elite. Arghun Aqa came to Iran or Transcaucasia as Güyük Khan's representative for neutralizing the resistance of the group led by Baiju Noyan and conducted a census in 1254 to establish taxation norms. These regional governance changes in Iran and Transcaucasia sparked a fierce conflict between the Great Khaans along with Batu Khan, who led the Ulus of Jochi to claim authority over the region. This stage of the struggle between the Great Khaans and the Ulus of Jochi resulted in compromise. The basqaq, a representative of Batu Khan, was to collect part of the taxes from Transcaucasia. The Georgian-Armenian feudal nobility of Transcaucasia was also drawn into the struggle between these two factions of the Mongol elite. Seeking to preserve their privileges, they aligned themselves with one or the other of the aforementioned warring parties.

Abstract. Introduction. In the early 13th century, the eastern provinces of Armenia were divided into small principalities that were politically subordinate to the Zakarids. However, with the onset of the Mongol invasions, the situation changed significantly not only in Armenia but throughout the entire region. The aim of this article is to analyze the epigraphic inscriptions preserved in the eastern provinces of Armenia in order to highlight the following key aspects: the fundamental transformations that occurred in the socio-political life of eastern Armenia following the Mongol conquests; the specific nature of the relationships between Armenian princely houses and the official representatives of the Mongol Empire; and particular aspects of the activities of Mongol khans, governors, and other officials operating in the region in direct contact with Armenian nobility. Materials and methods. The primary sources for this research include predominantly epigraphic inscriptions dating to the 13th century, originating from the eastern provinces of Armenia, as well as the accounts of Armenian historians of the same period. The study was carried out using special historical methods, primarily historical comparative analysis. A critical approach was applied to the sources, involving comparison, clarification, and interpretation of various facts. Results. Epigraphic inscriptions from the 13th century and contemporary Armenian historical narratives confirm that from 1220 to the 1270s, the Mongols conquered the territories of states existing in Georgia, Caucasian Albania, Armenia, Iran, Mesopotamia, and across vast areas of Asia Minor. The princes of eastern Armenia—particularly those of Lower and Upper Khachen — acknowledged the Mongol Empire's supremacy, recognizing the futility of resistance and seeking to preserve their domains from total destruction. Through collaboration with the Mongols, they managed to maintain their authority. Armenian princes not only paid tribute but also took part in military campaigns organized by the Mongols. The materials introduced into academic circulation in this article are valuable primary sources that hold significance for both Armenian and international scholars. Their examination allows for a deeper understanding of the history of Armenian-Mongol relations in the 13th century.

Introduction. In recent years, Kalmyk historiography has intensified the study of the written heritage of the Kalmyk rulers of the 17th–18th centuries. The letters of the viceroy of the Kalmyk Khanate, Donduk-Dashi, have not been sufficiently studied. At the same time, it is known that Donduk-Dashi, having become the viceroy of the khanate in a very difficult time, was able to improve the economic situation of his subjects during the first 15 years of his reign, which actualizes the study of the economic history of the Kalmyks of that period The purpose of this study is to introduce the letters of the Kalmyk viceroy Donduk-Dashi into scientific circulation and to consider them as a source on the economic history of the Kalmyks of the 18th century. Materials. The source base for this study is three letters of the viceroy Donduk-Dashi, belonging to the I-36 collection of the National Archives of the Republic of Kalmykia. The letters under study were written by him at the beginning of his reign, in 1742–1744. Results. In the presented letters, the viceroy, in correspondence with the Astrakhan Governor V. N. Tatishchev, acts as a guardian of the economic and moral interests of his subjects on a number of issues, including the safety of the Kalmyks during their spring migration across the Volga river, protecting them from illegal collections, and caring for their moral state by demanding a ban on the unauthorized sale of alcohol in the uluses. Of no small importance is also Donduk-Dashi’s statement of the fact of the “impoverishment” of the Kalmyks, which he used as an argument in his petitions to the imperial authorities to resolve various economic problems of his subjects. Conclusions. The letters studied in terms of their content are an important source on the economic history of the Kalmyks of the 18th century and, in general, are evidence of the significant potential of the written heritage of the Kalmyk rulers as a source on this topic.

Introduction. The article is devoted to the Mongolian topic on a regional (oblastniki) edition pages The Eastern Review, which paid a very serious attention to Mongolia. Goal of investigation — description of the Mongolian topic directions in an edition, having treated Mongolia as a trade partner and possible field in the struggle against China, as well as the newspaper’s point of view in definition of Mongolian way of involvement in Russian sphere of influence. Materials and methods. The research is based on The Eastern Review’s publications, the source rarely used in Russian-Mongolian relations investigation in the given historical period. When writing the article, authors stuck to the material presentation problem-chronological method, more suitable to the formulated concept. Special historic-comparative and historic-genetic methods have been used as well. Results and conclusions. The authors identified The Eastern Review’s main Mongolian topic directions: Mongolian “national character’s” peculiarities, Russian-Mongolian trade principles, Mongolian place in Russian geopolitical strategy. According to the paper, the Mongols possessed peace loving character and the capacity for “cultural sensitivity”. The newspaper strictly objected those who treated the Mongols as ignorant people not capable to progress.  The staff stressed the need for development of the Russian-Mongolian relations and willingly placed the materials about Russian merchants looking for new trade routs in Mongolia on its pages. The newspaper considered the undeveloped transport infrastructure and the opposition of China, which feared the strengthening of Russian influence on the Mongols, to be the main obstacles to the development of Russian-Mongolian trade. The edition found the way out in diplomatic methods, able to give assistance to the Russian merchants in the Mongolian market conquest. In Russia’s position definition in connection with Mongolia despite the supporters of strong hand the staff declared the principle of soft force, being sure that Russian goods, Russian mentality and wise management would attract Mongolia to the Russian side better than weapons. 

Introduction. In the 19th century, the dominant Buddhist ideology was already established in the Mongolian written tradition according to which the history of Buddhism was viewed through the prism of the “union of throne and altar” relationship, the lineage of the Khans was traced back to the Indian and Tibetan kings. This point of view has spread not only in religious writings, but also in chronicles. The aim of the article is the analysis of the written heritage of the Buryat lama Galsan-Zhimba Dylgyrov in Mongolian script, which contains information on the history of Mongolian Buddhism. Materials and methods. Two xylographs written by the Buryat author “The Legend of Saint Genghis Khagan, Predestined by Heaven” and “A short chronology of the doctrine” were used to reveal the topic, and bibliographic indexes-garchaks were used to review his works. In the course of the research, the methods of historical and comparative, chronological source studies, and textual criticism have been used which made it possible to compare the dates and descriptions of the events given by the author with other historical data. Results. A brief overview of the study of the biography and the works of the Buryat lama is given. Two Mongolian-language works by 
G.-Zh. Dylgyrov on the history of the Mongols and the history of the spread of Buddhism in the Mongolian steppes are analyzed. Conclusions. It was revealed that both Tibetan and Mongolian sources were used in G.-Zh. Dylgyrov’s essays. In presenting Mongolian history, the author follows the established Buddhist tradition of historiography and traces the succession of power of the Mongol khans to the Indian and Tibetan kings. In these xylographs, the entire Mongol history is subjected to Buddhist influence, and Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan are called Chakravartins. The different genre orientation of the texts has influenced the completeness and presentation of the reflected information. The writings of G.-Zh. Dylgyrov are not literal translations from the Tibetan language, they show a lot of creative, editorial work, which allows to consider them as independent compositions.

Introduction. Yonghegong Monastery is the largest and the most famous Gelug Buddhist monastic complex outside Tibet, located in the northeastern part of central Beijing, however, its history is not well known in Russian historiography. The purpose of the article is to fill the existing gap in the historiography. In this regard, the history of the monastery, its architecture, composition and number of monks, monastic educational faculties, issues of monastery management and its current state is briefly examined in the article, with the help of the main historical methods, such as historical-comparative, chronological. The main sources were the sources in Chinese, such as legislative acts and regulations of the CCP and the government of the PRC, the Yonghegong Monastery website and the articles on various aspects of the history of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhism. Results. Yonghegong Buddhist Temple is one of the most important cultural and historical monuments of Beijing, which, unlike most buildings, has managed to preserve its appearance to the present day. Founded in 1694 by the Manchu Emperor Kangxi as a residence for Crown Prince Yinzheng (1678–1735), the monastery was officially designated as a court Buddhist monastery by the Qianlong Emperor in 1744 and given the name Yonghegong. Throughout its history, the monastery has been under the direct control of the imperial court, government agencies, beginning with the Chamber of External Affairs (Lifan Yuan), the Ministry or Council of Rites, and the Bureau (National Administration) of Religious Affairs of the People’s Republic of China (1949 to the present). The monastic complex consists of five main temple buildings, arranged in a straight axis from south to north. The temples, connected by courtyards with various small temples located on the sides of the large temples, are distinguished by the richness of decoration, unique historical and cultural artifacts, stone carvings, stone steles with inscriptions in Chinese, Manchu, Mongolian and Tibetan languages. Conclusions. The management of the monastery is divided between the General Administrative Management Department of Yonghegong and the Monastic Council for the Management of the Monastery. At present, the monastery, which combines religious sites, tourist attractions and the Museum of Tibetan Buddhist Art, which is visited every day by a large number of tourists and believers, both from the PRC and from all over the world, is turning into one of the main tourist sites in Beijing. The changes observed in Yonghegong indicate the process of growing identification of Buddhist monasteries with Chinese civilization, resulting in gradual reorientation of monasteries from religious sites to symbols of cultural heritage and museums playing a significant role in cultural diplomacy.

Introduction. The archive of the Kalmyk Scientific Center of the RAS contains the manuscript of the orientalist Ts.-D. Nominkhanov, named “Kalmyk Folk Songs”, including texts recorded by him among different ethnic groups from 1927 to 1962. The purpose of the article is to characterize the songs of the Xinjiang Torguts from this collection as a source. The article is a continuation of two other articles, which consider the recordings of songs of the Don and Boshederbet Kalmyks (1927). Results. Ts.-D. Nominkhanov recorded 10 songs of the Karashar Torguts. The songs were recorded from Dusyan who was the Torgut and the student of the Central Asian University. All songs are included into the manuscript entitled “Kalmyk Folk Songs”, which reflects the peculiarity of the scientific and creative biography of the scientist, as well as the opinion of Ts.-D. Nominkhanov on the unity of the culture of Xinjiang Torguts and Kalmyks. The songs were recorded in the first month of the scientist’s work in Tashkent, where he worked at the Central Asian University for three years, which can be explained not only by the teacher’s employment, but also by the peculiarities of the social environment among students from China. Recordings of songs of Xinjiang Torguts do not contain religious and historical songs, there are no songs dedicated to noble persons. Most of the songs are lyrical. But the records still show the peculiarity of the situation in Xinjiang in the early 1930s.

Introduction. Abraham Constantine Mouradgea d’Ohsson (Muradjayan, 1779–1851) was a Swedish diplomat, chemist, and historian. He was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and an honorary member of both the Royal Academy of Letters and the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala. A nobleman of Armenian origin, he is regarded as one of the most eminent representatives of Mongolian studies in Europe. His seminal work, “The History of the Mongols from Genghis Khan to Timur”, written in French, was first published in Paris in 1824 and republished in 1834–1835. This work became a milestone in Western Mongolian studies, particularly due to its extensive use of historical sources that were previously little known or entirely unknown in European Oriental scholarship. The aim of the article is to highlight the life and work of one of the pioneers of the European Mongolian studies. Materials and Methods. The main research sources are d’Ohsson’s monograph as well as opinions of various Orientalists about his work. Results. By studying d’Ohsson’s monograph in the context of the history of Mongolian studies and its further life, as well as the way specialists appreciated it, its importance in the development of Mongolistica in Europe becomes obvious. An analysis of the content of d’Ohsson’s work reveals the existence of the early and systematic approach to the study of the Mongolian heritage, which makes it possible to consider his monograph as one of the first comprehensive works on this topic in the European science of the 19th century.

Introduction. This work is devoted to further consideration of the question of the origin of the genus Tsoros (Choros). The purpose of the article is to analyze a set of historical, ethnographic, genetic, and other data to reconstruct the formation of the name “Tsoros” and clarify the relationship of a number of historical and modern ethnonyms to the Oirat ethnic community. The research materials were the texts of the Mongolian and Kalmyk chronicles, publications of researchers. The research methodology is mainly represented by an interdisciplinary approach. Results. A consistent consideration of the ethnogonic myth of Bargа Bator and his three sons, coupled with genetic, historical and linguistic data, significantly complements the understanding of complex ethnohistorical processes in the mass of Bargujin-Tokum communities over a number of epochs. It is stated that at the initial stage, the formation of the ancestors of the Oirats, represented by the descendants of Duva-Sokhor, most likely developed as part of the Bargut Union (which gave the name to the corresponding territory and community), but as the influence of the Genghis Khan's clan grew, largely due to the unity of the ethnogonic myth of the Borjigins and the Oirats proper, separation took place, and further strengthening of the latter. The fall of the Yuan inevitably triggered a series of military and political confrontations on the territory of Mongolia, which resulted in the merger of two communities under the political dominance of ethnic Barguts and the spread of the very name “oirat” to an expanded set of clans and tribes in the context of an active transition to feudal relations. Thus, Barga Bator acquires the features of a real historical character of the period around the 10th–11th centuries, whose descendants eventually gained a significant population advantage and subsequently even occupied a dominant position among the Oirats and partly the Mongols, successfully competing with the “Altan Urug”.

Introduction. Among the astral objects in the traditional worldview of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples, it is the night luminary that was associated with a wide variety of meanings, symbols, and functions. The purpose of this article is to solve two problems, one of which is to research the distribution of the main names of the moon in the Turkic and Mongolic languages, identify the most complete set of their versions in different dialects, clarify and supplement the etymology of the names. The other task is to detail the mythological images of the moon known in the territory of settlement of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples. Materials and methods. The work is based on a comprehensive, systemic-historical approach to the study of the past. The research methodology is based on historical and ethnographic methods. The main sources of the study were materials on the mythology and folklore of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples, reflecting the ideas of nomads about the satellite of our planet. Results. Some of the views reflected in the vocabulary show that the main and earliest characteristic of a celestial body in the Turkic and Mongolic languages ​​is light, shine. The phases of the moon are recorded in most languages ​​of the Turkic and Mongolic group as changes in the disk in the category “new-old”. Often the beginning of the period of the appearance of a new moon, when the luminary is not yet visible in the sky, is designated as an “interval”, “emptiness”. The full moon in terminology is associated with the concepts of “full”, “to fill”. The most relevant etymological hypotheses reflecting the origin of the Turkic and Mongolian names of the moon are presented, a number of mythological images of the night luminary, revealed in the course of the study, are proposed. Conclusions. Anthropomorphic images have become widely known. Three versions of the connection between celestial bodies have been revealed: the sun and the moon are a married couple, in which, according to one version, the spouse is the sun, according to another, the moon; the sun and the moon are sisters; the sun and the moon are brothers. Also among the mythological images of the moon, traces of an animal from the canine family (fox, dog, wolf) are faintly visible.

Introduction. Kalmyk Russian-language drama begins its countdown from the beginning of this century. It has not been the object and subject of the research by Russian literary criticism, which explains the relevance and novelty of this article. The purpose of the article is to present the phenomenon of the Kalmyk Russian-language drama in personalities and representative works, to identify the genre paradigm, to reveal national identity, to study folklore tradition, poetics of plays. The research materials are based on representative plays by Kalmyk playwrights, including unpublished ones, from the authors’ personal archive. The method of descriptive poetics is used to analyze texts. Results. Kalmyk Russian-language drama is represented by four authors of the older generation, members of writers’ unions, and one author of the younger generation, who has not yet been accepted into the Writers’ Union. Some of the plays have been published, some have not, and they are in the authors personal archives. A number of plays have been staged in the theaters of Kalmykia. In terms of genre, the works mostly differ both in the work of one playwright and in the literary process: musical, dramatic poem, legend, fairy tale, comedy, historical drama, drama, etc. The thematic range is wide: history and modernity. National identity in most plays is expressed in different ways. In the literary process, there is no longer the opposition of “one’s own / another’s” works created in Kalmyk or Russian languages, as in the 1960s and 1970s in the Kalmyk Russian-language poetry.

The review is devoted to the monograph by Konstantin Nikolaevich Maksimov (Kalmyk Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences) “The Newspaper „Svobodnaya Zemlya‟ of the German Occupiers as an example of Nazi propaganda” (Moscow: Nauka, 2023. 254 p.). The newspaper “Svobodnaya Zemlya” was published during the occupation of the Kalmyk ASSR in Elista in 1942. The monograph is based on the analysis of preserved issues of the newspaper “Svobodnaya Zemlya” and other historical and historiographical sources. The book’s structure includes an introduction, four chapters, a conclusion, and a bibliography. The first chapter examines the editorials of the newspaper “Svobodnaya Zemlya”. The second chapter is devoted to the reports of the High Command of the German Army. In the third chapter, the author examines the editorial and author’s articles published under the heading “In the liberated regions”. The fourth chapter describes the publication of orders, orders, appeals and other documents of the occupation authorities. The author described the genre features of the materials published in the newspaper, their role and significance in the policy of the invaders, in the implementation of Nazi propaganda. The book contains unknown information about the occupation of the Kalmyk ASSR, including biographical information about representatives of the occupation administration.