Bӧӧ-Khan, Udun Tree and Uuli Bird: Ethnogonic Myth of the Tsoros from Cultural and Linguistic Perspectives

Introduction. The present article continues insights into the shaping of certain patrilineages among the Kalmyk (Oirat) and approaches the ethnogonic myth of the Tsoros (Choros) nobility. Goals. The work attempts an analysis of cultural and linguistic elements of the myth with evidence from history, ethnography, philology, genetics, etc. for interpretations of the set of messages intertwined within the narrative and addressed to other Oirat and related/neighboring ethnopolitical groups. Materials and methods. The study focuses on Mongolian and Kalmyk chronicles, ethnographic data from works of P. S. Pallas, G. N. Potanin, L. P. Potapov, N. P. Dyrenkova and others. Methodologically, it rests on an interdisciplinary approach, some emphasis be placed on tools of linguistic analysis. Results. The work attempts to investigate motif and word as keys to understanding a set of messages once included into the myth’s structure. And though the general shamanistic framework of the narration is clear enough, some aspects do require additional investigation and accentuation to reveal the actual rationales invested therein by the political and ideological apparatus of the ruling clan. So, the udun-willow tree-mother happens to have parallels among the nomadic Gaoche from Asia’s Early Middle Ages and can act as semantic equivalent of the holy Burqan Qaldun, which means the Tsoros subcontextually declared their rights to power were equal to those almost uniquely guaranteed for the Genghisids. The uuli-owlet bird-father with evidence from archaeology can be identified in pommel-masks of shamanic canes as cult solar-heaven attributes, while the depicted picture at large can be perceived as a ‘second-birth’ rite experienced by a clan/tribal leader after he gathered forces on the eve of a mass military expansion. Finally, ethnographic data of Turkic peoples make it possible to reconstruct the shaping of terms bӧge / bӧgü, which inter alia may yield a convergence of images of Bӧӧ-Khan of the Oirat (Kalmyk) and Bukha-Noyon of the Buryat that is also confirmed by recent genetic findings.

1. Shagdarov L. D., Cheremisov K. M. (comps.) Buryat-Russian Dictionary. In 2 vols. Vol. 1: A–Н. Ulan-Ude: Respublikanskaya Tipografiya, 2010. 636 p. (In Bur. and Russ.)

2. Nadelyaev V. M., Nasilov D. M., Tenishev E. R., Shcherbak A. M. (eds.) Dictionary of Old Turkic. Leningrad: Nauka, 1969. XXXVIII, 678 p. (In Old Turk. and Russ.)

3. Ayagan B. (ed.) Kazakhstan: The National Encyclopedia. Vol. 1: A–В. Almaty: Qazaq Entsiklopediyasy, 2004. 558 p. (In Russ.)

4. Muniev B. D. (ed.) Kalmyk-Russian Dictionary. 26 000 entries. Moscow: Russkiy Yazyk, 1977. 765 p. (In Kalm. and Russ.)

5. Yudakhin K. K. (comp.) Kyrgyz-Russian Dictionary. Ca. 40 000 entries. Moscow: Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, 1965. 973 p. (In Kyrg. and Russ.)

6. Meletinsky E. M. (ed.) Mythological Dictionary. Moscow: Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, 1990. 672 p. (In Russ.)

7. Tenishev E. R., Blagova G. F., Dobrodomov I. G. et al. Comparative Historical Grammar of Turkic Languages: Vocabulary. Second ed., suppl. Moscow: Nauka, 2001. 822 p. (In Turk. and Russ.)

8. Sanzheev G. D., Orlovskaya M. N., Shevernina Z. V. Etymological Dictionary of Mongolic Languages. In 3 vols. G. Sanzheev et al. (eds.). Vol. I: A–E. Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS), 2015. 224 p. (In Mong. and Russ.)

9. Sanzheev G. D., Orlovskaya M. N., Shevernina Z. V. Etymological Dictionary of Mongolic Languages. In 3 vols. G. Sanzheev et al. (eds.). Vol. II: G–P. Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS), 2016. 232 p. (In Mong. and Russ.)

10. Sevortyan E. V. Etymological Dictionary of Turkic Languages: Common and Intra-Turkic Stems Beginning with ‘B’. N. Gadzhieva (ed.). Moscow: Nauka, 1978. 349 p. (In Turk. and Russ.)

11. YFull.com: C-F10378 — C-F10378. On: YFull.com. Available at: https://www.yfull.com/tree/ C-F10378 / (accessed: 25 February 2026). (In Eng.)

12. Badmaev A. A. Images of an owl and an eagle owl in the traditional worldview of Buryats. Problems of Archaeology, Ethnography, Anthropology of Siberia and Neighboring Territories. Vol. XXX. Novosibirsk: IAET SB RAS, 2024. Pp. 874–879. (In Russ.)

13. Bakaeva E. P. Buddhism in Kalmykia: Essays in History and Ethnography. Elista: Kalmykia Book Publ., 1994. 128 p. (In Russ.)

14. Bakaeva E. P. Ethnic groups of Mongolia’s Oirats and Russia’s Kalmyks, subethnic groups of Altaians and Tuvans: Revisiting ethnogenetic ties (Chapter 2). In: Cross-Border Culture: Comparative Research Essays on Traditions of Western Mongols and Kalmyks. Elista: Kalmyk Scientific Center (RAS), 2016. Pp. 39–96. (In Russ.)

15. Banzarov D. Collected Works. Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1955. 373, [1] p. (In Russ.)

16. Basaev D. E. Kalmyk Folk Legends and Tales. Cand. Sc. (history) thesis. Elista, 2009. 175 p. (In Russ.)

17. Bereznitsky S. V. The Far Eastern Evenki: Present-day ideas of soul and death. In: Siberian Digest — 1. Funerary Rites of Siberians and Their Neighbors. Book I. St. Petersburg: Museum of Anthropo­logy and Ethnography (RAS). 2009. Pp. 98–103. (In Russ.)

18. Bertagaev T. A. Cult of Mother-Goddess and fire among Mongols. Sovetskaya etnografiya. 1973. No. 6. Pp. 120–125. (In Russ.)

19. Borgoyakov M. I. On one ancient mythological image, its evolution and representation in Eurasian folklore traditions. In: Questions of Ancient History in South Siberia. Abakan: Khakassia Institute of Language, Literature and History, 1984. Pp. 135–141. (In Russ.)

20. Burnakov V. A. The swan and its image in the traditional Khakass culture (Late 19th – mid 20th century). Problems of Archaeology, Ethnography, Anthropology of Siberia and Neighboring Territories. 2022. Vol. XXVII. Pp. 863–871. (In Russ.)

21. Burnakov V. A. The tree and its derivatives in the ritual of the Khakas children’s cycle (Late 19th–mid-20th centuries). Vestnik Tomskogo gosudarstvennogo universiteta – Tomsk State University Journal. 2023. No. 490. Pp. 104–111. (In Russ.) DOI: 10.17223/15617793/490/12

22. Vladimirtsov B. Ya. Mongols: Works on History and Ethnography. V. Alpatov et al. (eds.); G. Slesarchuk (comp.). Moscow: Vostochnaya Literatura, 2002. 557 p. (In Russ.)

23. Vyatkina K. V. Vestiges of matrifocal clan system among Buryat Mongols. Sovetskaya etnografiya. 1946. No. 1. Pp. 137–144. (In Russ.)

24. Galdanova G. R. Cult of fire among Mongols and its representation in Lamaism. Sovetskaya etnografiya. 1980. No. 3. Pp. 94–100. (In Russ.)

25. Galdanova G. R. Pre-Lamaist Beliefs of Buryats. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1987. 114 p. (In Russ.)

26. Dalai Ch. Mongolia: Thirteenth–Fourteenth Centuries. Moscow: Vostochnaya Literatura, 1983. 233 p. (In Russ.)

27. Dzhagrunov S. V. Olot, Tӧlӧs, Züün-gar: Some remarks on the history and correlation of the ethnonyms. Mongolian Studies (Elista). 2025. Vol. 17. No. 4. Pp. 646–677. (In Russ.) DOI: 10.22162/2500-1523-2025-4-646-677

28. Dzhagrunov S. V., Buluktaev A. A. Tsoros, Choros, Baɣatud: Discussing origins of the Tsoros (with evidence from C2-F1067 Y-STR haplotypes of Kalmyks). Part 1: The Dorbet. Oriental Studies. 2024. Vol. 17. No. 4. Pp. 835–848. (In Russ.) DOI: 10.22162/2619-0990-2024-74-4-835-848

29. Drobyshev Yu. I. Thirteenth-century ‘Mongols’ and ‘Tatars’: Two facets of one myth. In: Kruglova M. S., Dubrovskaya D. V. (eds.) Game of Thrones in the East: Political Myth and Reality. Moscow: Institute of Oriental Studies (RAS), 2023. Pp. 217–233. (In Russ.)

30. Dugarov D. S. Historical Roots of White Shamanism: A Study of Buryat Ritual and Folklore. Moscow: Nauka, 1991. 300 p. (In Russ.)

31. Dyrenkova N. P. Semantics of the term bura ~ puγra among Altaian Turks: In relation to the horse / deer cult. In: Dyrenkova N. P. Turks of the Sayan-Altai. Articles and Ethnographic Materials (Kunstkamera — Archives 6). St. Petersburg: Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (RAS), 2012. Pp. 200–229. (In Russ.)

32. Ekeev N. V. Ethnic history of the Oirat Choros revisited. Mir Evrazii. 2008. No. 2. Pp. 37–41. (In Russ.)

33. Ilimbetova A. F. Mythical bird Humay in the traditional worldview of the Bashkirs. Izvestiya of Altai State University. 2023. No. 3(131). Pp. 61–67. (In Russ.) DOI: 10.14258/izvasu(2023)3-09

34. Kamalov A. K. Ancient Uighurs, 8th–9th Centuries CE. Almaty: Nash Mir, 2001. 216 p. (In Russ.)

35. Kozin S. A. The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Chronicle of 1240 Titled ‘Monggolun niguča tobčiyan. Yuan chao bi shi’. Vol. 1: Research Introduction, Translation, Texts, Glossaries. A. Barannikov (ed.), N. Poppe (foreword). Moscow, Leningrad: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1941. 619 p. (In Russ. and Mong.)

36. Kondakov A. Why the Owl Has No Nostrils: A Kalmyk etiological tale. Rodnoy yazyk. 2023. No. 2. Pp. 118–132. (In Russ.)

37. Ksenofontov G. V. Legends and Stories about Shamans [Recorded] from Yakuts, Buryats and Tunguses: Materials for Mythological Collections of Uralic and Altaic Tribes Inhabiting North Asia. Pt. 1. Irkutsk: Vlast Truda, 1928. 77 p. (In Russ.)

38. Kypchakova L. V. More on cult of tree among Altaians. In: Questions of Archaeology and Ethnography in Gorny Altai. Gorno-Altaysk: Gorno-Altaysk Book Publ., 1983. Pp. 141–148. (In Russ.)

39. Kychanov E. I. History of China’s Ancient and Medieval Neighbor States: From the Xiongnu to the Manchu. Second ed., rev. and suppl. St. Petersburg: Peterburgskoe Lingvisticheskoe Obshchestvo, 2010. 364 p. (In Russ.)

40. Lebedev R. V. Reflection of the oldest Tengrian notions about the primordial Creator of the Universe and man in the common Eurasian depiction of the motif ― woman giving birth baby-totem. BSU Bulletin. Humanities Research of Inner Asia. 2017. No. 4. Pp. 21–40. (In Russ.)

41. Badmaev A. V. (comp., ed.) The Moonlight: Kalmyk Historical and Literary Texts. Elista: Kalmykia Book Publ., 2003. 477 p. (In Russ.)

42. Manzhigeev I. A. Buryat Shamanistic and Pre-Shamanistic Terms: Atheistic Interpretations. Moscow: Nauka, 1978. 127 p. (In Russ.)

43. Taskin V. S. (comp.) Ancient Nomadic Tribes of the Donghu: Historical Materials. V. Taskin (foreword, transl., etc.). Moscow: Nauka, 1984. 486 p. (In Russ.)

44. Okladnikov A. P. Cult of bear among Neolithic tribes of Eastern Siberia. Sovetskaya arkheologiya. 1950. Vol. XIV. Pp. 7–19. (In Russ.)

45. Okladnikov A. P. Neolithic and Bronze Age Cisbaikalia: A Study in History and Archaeology. Pts. 1–2 (Materials and Studies in Soviet Archaeology 18). Moscow; Leningrad: USSR Academy of Sciences, 1950. 412 p. (In Russ.)

46. Ochir A. Ethnonyms of Mongols: Insights into Genesis and Ethnic Composition of Mongolic Peoples. Elista: Kalmyk Humanities Research Institute (RAS), 2016. 286 p. (In Russ.)

47. Petrov K. I. The Kyrgyz: An Essay on Ori­gins and Ethnogenesis. Frunze: Aca­demy of Sciences of the Kirghiz SSR, 1963. 148 p. (In Russ.)

48. Potanin G. N. Essays on Northwestern Mongolia: Outcomes of Travels Undertaken in 1876–1877 on Instructions from Imperial Russian Geographical Society by its Member G. N. Potanin. Vol. II: Ethnographic Materials. St. Petersburg: tip. V. Kirshbaum, 1881. [8], 182, 87, [3] p., 26 p. il. (In Russ.)

49. Potanin G. N. Essays on Northwestern Mongolia: Outcomes of Travels Undertaken in 1876–1877 on Instructions from Imperial Russian Geographical Society by its Member G. N. Potanin. Vol. IV: Ethnographic Materials. St. Petersburg: V. Kirshbaum, 1883. [18], 1026 p., 26 p. il. (In Russ.)

50. Potapov L. P. Reminiscences of Totemic Beliefs among the Altaian (Turks). Sovetskaya etnografiya. 1935. No. 4–5. Pp. 134–152. (In Russ.)

51. Radlov V. V. More on Uyghurs: Excerpts from a Foreword to the Kutadgu Bilig. Zapiski Imper. Akademii nauk. Vol. LXXII. Supplement 2. St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1893. 130 p. (In Russ.)

52. Sleptsov E. P. Tree image in Yakut shamanism. Izvestia: Herzen University Journal of Humanities & Sciences. 2008. No. 12(86). Pp. 101–106. (In Russ.)

53. Sundueva E. V. Archaic landscape terms in the Secret History of the Mongols. Bulletin of Chelyabinsk State University. 2009. No. 39(177). Philology, Art Criticism 38. Pp. 140–143. (In Russ.)

54. Tsybikov G. Ts. Selected Works. Vol. 2: About Central Tibet, Mongolia and Buryatia. Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1981. 240 p., 16 p. il. (In Russ.)

55. Shavkunov E. V. Sogdian colony in eighth–tenth century Primorye. In: Materials on Ethnocultural Ties between Medieval Far Eastern Peoples. Vladivostok, 1988. Pp. 100–105. (In Russ.)

56. Shavkunov E. V. Stone pommel with a skull-mask excavated near Kishinevka village. In: Newly Discovered Archaeological Materials from the Soviet Far East. Vladivostok: USSR Academy of Sciences (Far Eastern Branch), 1989. Pp. 113–119. (In Russ.)

57. Shavkunov E. V. About shamanism in Parhae/Balhae. In: Shavkunov E. V. (ed.) Russia’s Medieval Far East Rediscovered. Collected articles. Vla­divostok: Dalnauka, 1994. Pp. 48–56. (In Russ.)

58. Shavkunov E. V. More on constituents of ethnos and culture in Parhae/Balhae. In: Artemyev A. R. (ed.) Ancient and Medieval History of East Asia. Jubilee conference proceedings (Vla­divostok, 21–26 September 1998). Vladivostok, 2001. Pp. 11–16. (In Russ.)

59. Shavkunov E. V. The Bohai state and medieval Korea. Russia and the Pacific. 2022. No. 1. Pp. 41–47. (In Russ.)

60. Birtalan Á. An Oirat ethnogenetic myth in written and oral traditions (A case study of Oirat legitimacy). Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 2002. Vol. 55. No. 1–3. Pp. 69–88. (In Eng.)

61. Cleaves F. W. (ed., transl.) Yüan-chʻao pi-shih. The Secret History of the Mongols. Cambridge; London: Harvard University Press, 1982. LXV, 277 p. (In Eng.)

62. Huang Y.-Z., Wei L.-H., Yan S., Wen S.-Q., Wang C.-C., Yang Y.-J., Wang L. X., Lu Y., Zhang C., Xu S.-H., Yao D. L., Jin L., Li H. Whole sequence analysis indicates a recent southern origin of Mongolian Y-chromosome C2c1a1a1-M407. Molecular Genetics and Genomics. 2018. Vol. 293. Is. 3. Pp. 657–663. (In Eng.)

63. Miyawaki J. Examples of the archival materials on Mongol history existing outside Mongolia. In: Futaki H., Ulziibaatar D. (eds.) Researching Archival Documents on Mongolian History: Observations on the Present and Plans for the Future. Tokyo: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 2004. Pp. 165–200. (In Eng.)

64. Okada H. Origins of the Dorben Oyirad. Ural-Altaische Jahrbücher. Neue Folge. Band 7. 1987. Ss. 181–211. (In Eng.)

65. Pallas P. S. Sammlungen historischer Nachrichten über die mongolischen Völkerschaften (in einem ausführlichen Auszuge). Frankfurt, Leipzig: Johann Georg Fleischer, 1779. 350 s. (In Germ.)

66. Pelliot P. Histoire secrète des Mongols / Restitution du texte mongol et traduction des chapitres I à VI par Paul Pelliot. Paris: Librairie d’Amérique et d’Orient Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1949. 198 p. (In Fr.)

67. Rachewiltz I. de. Index to the Secret History of the Mongols (Uralic and Altaic Series 121). Bloomington: Indiana University Publications, 1972. 347 p. (In Eng.)

68. Ravdan E., Enkhjargal P., Oyunsuren T. A name study of “Burqan Qaldun” in the Secret History of the Mongols. Universum: Philology and Art Criticism. 2021. No. 4(82). Pp. 51–58.