Introduction. Armenian-Georgian sources are rich in various valuable information about the Mongols. The earliest of them relate to the Mongols; first reconnaissance invasion to the Transcaucasia in 1220–1222. It was during this invasion, which played a negative role in the lives of the Armenian and Georgian peoples, that they became acquainted with the Mongols, who later conquered the Georgian kingdom, which included northeastern, or, as it is commonly called in Armenology, Zakarian Armenia. The above mentioned invasion, of course, was not left out of the scope of Eastern sources either. The Armenian-Georgian sources focused mainly on the events that took place in the Transcaucasia during that invasion. And Eastern sources also touched upon the events related to it, however, that took place elsewhere. Material and methods. The information about this invasion is provided by such Armenian sources from the 13th century as historians Kirakos Gandzaketsi, Vardan Vardapet, Grigor Aknetsi, and chroniclers of the same century, Mkhitar Airivantsi, Bishop Stepanos, and Anonymous Sebastatsi. Georgian sources include the Georgian chronicle from the time of Georgian King Giorgi Lasha (1207–1223), the 14th-century Georgian anonymous chronicle, and another 14th-century anonymous source. Georgian Queen Rusudan (1223–1245) and the Atabek of the Georgian Kingdom Ivane Zakaryan wrote about this invasion in their official letters to Pope Honorius III (1216–1227). However, what they report is only partially reliable. The data provided by Armenian-Georgian sources about the discussed invasion are presented using a combination of historical comparative and historical analytical methods of historical reconstruction. They are also compared with reports from Eastern sources. Results. The presented evidence can serve as a basis for putting into scientific circulation the material available in Armenian-Georgian sources about the first Mongol invasion of the Transcaucasia. This will provide an opportunity to more comprehensively and reliably reproduce the history of the invasion.

Introduction. The migration of the majority of the Kalmyk people from the Russian Volga region to Central Asia in 1771 remains one of the most complex topics, including a range of issues. The assessment of facts and events largely depends on the nature of the sources, and the topic remains one of the most relevant in Mongolian studies. Even the name of the people in historiography is different, since the Oirats who remained in the Volga region finally adopted the self-designation “Kalmyks”, and those who migrated to Altai are called the Torguts, since they mainly represented this ethnic group. This article examines some aspects of the migration of the Kalmyks to Central Asia in 1771. The purpose of the work is to reconstruct the social and political picture of the migration of the Oirat—Torguts (Kalmyks) in 1771 using documents from the Qing archives. Materials and methods. The article analyzes archival documents related to the history of the Torguts (1731–1772), extracted from their “Collection of archival documents in the Manchu language on Xinjiang during the Qing Dynasty” (Guilin, 2012), which includes orders from Manchu and Chinese ministers and officials for the protection of the western and northern borders of the Qing Empire, and published in translation into Mongolian (Ulaanbaatar, 2021). The work undertakes a source analysis, scientific criticism of the source, processing and analysis of the data contained in the source, which, from the standpoint of the principles of historicism and objectivity, allowed us to consider the process of Kalmyks migration in the context of the era under consideration. Results. The study of Qing archival documents makes it possible to supplement the data on the migration of the Kalmyks (Oirats-Torguts) in 1771. When considering the reasons for the migration of 1771, it is worth considering the fact that in 1770 during their participation in the Russian-Turkish war, the Kalmyks were able to receive some material reinforcements, which accelerated their decision to migrate. Due to the warm winter, more than 18,000 families remained in the Volga nomads on the right bank, unable to cross the river. The 14 Oirat (Kalmyk) Taishi, who brought the Oirat-Torguts to the territory of Xinjiang, were received in a solemn ceremony by the Manchurian emperor. The article provides information about the specifics of policy-making in relation to migrants, that the plan for the creation of the Oirat seimas (Chuulgans) belonged to the Janja Hutukhta, about the audience on October 16-24, 1771 at Qianlong, about the appointment of the head of the Oirat seimas. Conclusions. When comparing Mongolian and Russian written sources, the secret reports of the Manchu ministers Shuhede, Iletu and Tsebden Balchur, and the Qianlong decrees, many questions become clear, including the goals, the time of the start of the migration, the route, the number of participants, and the policies of Russia and the Manchus. The migration of the Torguts in 1771 has left a dark mark on the history of the Oirat people, damaged the territorial integrity, population growth and, consequently, future development. The Manchus were able to strengthen their western borders due to them.

Introduction. By the end of the 19th century, there were more than 1 200 monasteries in Inner Mongolia. Unfortunately, only names or mentions in some historical chronicles or archival documents have remained about most of them. The analysis of the researches on the history of Maidari-juu monastery showed that this monastery is practically unknown in Russian historiography, therefore the purpose of the article is to give a brief description of the history of the monastery, its temple structure, analyze its architectural and historical-cultural features, and consider the current state of the complex. Comparative and narrative methods were used to present the history of the monastery in chronological order, to analyze events and summarize data, and typologically compare it with other monasteries of Inner Mongolia. The articles by Chinese and European scholars, information from the monastery’s website, and materials collected during the trip to the monastery in 2024 have been used as the main sources. Results and Conclusions. Maidari-juu is one of the earliest Mongolian monasteries, founded in 1565 by Altan Khan (1507–1581) on the territory of the modern settlement of Maidari-juu in the Western Tumet khoshun near the city of Baotou. It was planned to be the headquarters of Altan Khan (Yeke Baysing), his principal administrative center, where his relatives, descendants, and courtiers would live, later it was transformed into a temple complex, where the local population lived along with monks. In 1606, Maidari khutukhtu arrived at the monastery from Tibet, after whom the monastery was named later on. The settlement and the monastery flourished until the death of Maidari khutukhtu and the main heirs of Altan Khan. The monastery played an important role in the spread of Tibetan Buddhism among the Tumets. By the end of the 19th century there were 15 temples in it, out of which 6 large temples, taken under protection in 1979, have survived up to the present day. After a long break, religious services have been partially resumed in it in the late 1990s. In 1996, the monastery was included into the list of the “Major National Historical and Cultural Sites of Inner Mongolia”. Now the monastery is not only a major tourist site, but also an active Buddhist monastery, functioning in accordance with the policy of the Chinese Communist Party and all legislative acts concerning religions and ethnic minorities. 

Introduction. The Mongols and Tuvans from the western frontier, who had long lived as neighbors, participated to some extent in the events of the region. The purpose of this article is to examine how the Tuvan people participated in the events that took place in western Mongolia in the first half of the 20th century. Results. At the beginning of the 20th century. Mongolia and Tuva began a liberation struggle against the Manchu Qing dynasty. The struggle for independence began with the expulsion of the Chinese trading companies from the banks of the Tes, Khandgait and Torhilog rivers, and then culminated in the liberation of Khovd, which was attended by more than 500 Tuvans
Moreover, in 1921, more than 50 Tuvan soldiers led by Naranbaatar joined forces with Khasbaatar, Dambadorj and the government army of the Western Border to liberate the region from the remaining White Guard forces. In 1930, the rebels from the Togsbuyantiyn Khure monastery, located in the Chandmani-Uul aimag, also tried to establish contact with the Tuvans, who, in turn, proposed to create a state in cooperation with the Derbets.

Introduction. The article is devoted to Mongolia's difficult path to de jure recognition of its independence, from the national liberation revolution of 1911 to 1945, when it was decided to "preserve the status quo of Outer Mongolia (the Mongolian People's Republic)" at the Yalta (Crimean) Conference (February 4–11). The National Democratic Revolution of 1921 and the proclamation of the republic in 1924 did not change the country's status. Beijing did not agree with the decision of the Yalta Conference. During several rounds of negotiations between the Soviet and Chinese sides in Moscow, the wording of the term "maintaining the status quo" became a stumbling block, among others. Each side had a different interpretation: the Chinese side implied the preservation of Outer Mongolia's autonomy as part of China under the protectorate of the USSR, the Soviet one is the position of the MNR in fact as an independent one. Under pressure from the Soviet Union, China agreed to recognize the independence of the MNR on condition that a plebiscite be held in the country and its results made public. On October 20, 1945, a popular vote was held, the results of which confirmed the de jure right of the Mongolian people to independence. The plebiscite was widely covered in the media, both in Soviet and Mongolian media. The State Archive of the Russian Federation contains TASS materials reflecting the reaction of the world press to the plebiscite in the MPR. Materials. The article is based on materials from the State Archive of the Russian Federation, the Russian State Archive of Socio-Political History, published collections of documents, scientific literature. Results and conclusions. Thanks to the decision of the Yalta Conference, Mongolia was able to achieve de facto and de jure recognition of its independence and become a full member of the world community. The Soviet Union, as a key participant in the Yalta Conference, acted as the guarantor of Mongolia's independence and actively promoted this issue in the international arena. Under pressure from the USSR and the Allies, the Republic of China recognized Mongolia's independence, but demanded a plebiscite, which took place on October 20, 1945. The results of the popular vote unequivocally confirmed the desire of the Mongolian people for independence.

Introduction. This article assesses the potential impact of the implementation of transport and infrastructure projects within the Russia–Mongolia–China Economic Corridor on the development and internal communication conditions of cross-border ethnic groups living in Russia and Mongolia. The potential impact of new projects on the ethnic landscape of the cross-border region is assessed through an analysis of the experience of previously constructed transport highways on the Russian-Mongolian border, as well as through an analysis of the dynamics of the ethnic situation on the border of Kazakhstan and China, where similar continental corridors have recently been implemented. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the positive and negative impact of the creation of new international transport highways on the well-being of cross-border peoples and their internal communication. A novel component of the study is the originality of its task, designed to assess the influence of economic factors on the ethnocultural situation of a cross-border region, as well as the original solution, which represents a combination of the geographical overlap of transport projects and cross-border ethnic areas, along with cross-regional analysis. Materials and methods. The study utilized monographs and analytical articles by Russian and Mongolian specialists and experts, statistical data, media reports, and private interviews with individuals from transborder ethnic regions. A cross-regional analysis (both spatial and temporal comparisons) was employed. The concept of an “ethnic transborder region” was used to operationalize the concept of a “transborder ethnic group” for the analysis of transport and infrastructure factors affecting its development. Results. The study yielded the following conclusions. Implementation of the Western Corridor project may lead to a reduction in the proportion of transborder ethnic groups in settlements closest to the border, but will not affect other areas along the new highway. In areas adjacent to the new highways and the border between the two countries, the proportion of nomadic populations may decrease, and population density will increase. The inevitable change in border regime will negatively impact the frequency of crossings to visit relatives outside established points, but will make crossings more convenient within established sections. The implementation of transport infrastructure projects will likely not lead to a change in migration rates for cross-border ethnic groups or provoke an increase in separatist sentiment. The creation of international highways will improve the well-being of cross-border ethnic groups by creating new jobs and opening up trade, tourism, sorting, packaging, and other businesses, while reducing migration of cross-border ethnic groups to regional centers or other large cities.

The aim of this study is to use materials from an international field expedition conducted by the Institute for Mongolian, Buddhist and Tibetan Studies of the Siberian Branch of the RAS (IBMT) SB RAS and partners in China (August 10–25, 2025) to demonstrate how the historical infrastructure of the Great Tea Road (financial institutions of Shanxi merchants, logistics hubs, and Qing administrative practices) relates to contemporary forms of representation and projects of the Mongolian Corridor of the “New Silk Road”. Materials and Methods. The empirical base consisted of consolidated field notes along the route Zhangjiakou – Tianjin – Taiyuan – Qixian – Pingyao – Beijing – Hohhot – Baotou–Ulanqab, museum collections and urban spaces, business documentation samples, and visual sources. Participant observation, historical source and textual analysis, cartographic mapping of field points to historical routes, and a comparative analysis of historical and contemporary logistical and financial decisions were used. Results. Field evidence of the functioning of Shanxi proto-banks and bills of exchange were recorded, key elements of the caravan trade infrastructure and their modern museum and urban representation were reconstructed, and the formation of academic and expert collaboration networks focused on the study of historical and contemporary economic corridors was demonstrated. Conclusions. The expedition materials confirm the effectiveness of the “finance-logistics-administration” analytical model for interpreting the mechanics of the Great Tea Road and demonstrate the potential of comparing historical nodes with the route of the Mongolian Corridor of the “New Silk Road”. The need for further comprehensive research, including the southern Chinese regions of tea origin, is substantiated for a more complete reconstruction of the transit links between Russia, Mongolia, and China.

Introduction. Among the cosmic objects in the traditional worldview of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples, it was the night luminary that was associated with a wide variety of meanings, symbols, and functions. The purpose of this article is to analyze the reflection of the lunar eclipse in the language, mythology, magical practices, and rituals of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples. Materials and methods. The work is based on a comprehensive, systemic-historical approach to studying the past. The research methodology is based on historical and ethnographic methods. The main sources of the study were materials on the mythology and folklore of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples, reflecting the ideas of nomads about the satellite of our planet. Results. In the vocabulary of the Turkic and Mongolic peoples, the lunar eclipse is associated with a group of terms expressing the ideas of 1. the capture of the night luminary, 2. its death, and 3. pollution/clouding. The first idea, closely related to myths about characters swallowing celestial bodies, prevails in the region. The other  ideas are fixed in the languages of the Mongolic peoples independently of the myths. The names of the eclipse, conveying the idea of ​​pollution, clouding, are traces of an archaic mythological plot with African “roots”, despite the absence of myths in the Turkic and Mongolic environment that tell about the cause and form of pollution of the moon. Conclusions. In the central part of Inner Asia, ideas about the lunar eclipse are concentrated as the capture, absorption of the moon by a certain monster localized in the sky, the image of which has a southern origin. An exception is the image of a bear, characteristic of the northern periphery of the Turkic and Mongolic world. In ritual actions aimed at saving the celestial body, one can see traces of archaic ideas that connect Siberia with the regions of the Russian Far East and East Asia. The custom of including orphans in the rituals of “saving” the Moon among the Turkic peoples of Southern Siberia and the Buryats is of a local nature. The group of such special people in some places is supplemented by widows, twins, boys who have reached 3 years of age.

Introduction. The relevance of the study is determined by the existing contradiction between Mongolia’s transition to a 12-year school education program and the socio-psychological unpreparedness of six-year-old children leading a nomadic lifestyle with their herdsmen parents to participate in this process. Since the collapse of the socialist system, the Mongolian government has been borrowing educational models from high-income countries with sedentary populations, which do not correspond to the economic opportunities of nomadic households and do not take into account their lifestyle and the socialization characteristics of their children. During the Soviet period, nomadic children attended school from the age of 8 and were better prepared for life in boarding schools. The aim of the study is to identify strategies for adaptation of nomadic families to the reduction in the age of children entering school, and to identify the socio-economic and psychological factors influencing the choice of strategy. The motives for choosing an educational strategy by nomadic families were described using a phenomenological qualitative research method and semi-structured in-depth interviews. A study of 20 families revealed three strategies for adapting to the decline in school age depending on the children’s place of residence: in a boarding school; in a family of relatives; seasonal separation of the family to accompany the child in the educational process. The economic, psychological and social costs of families due to the choice of strategies are described. Nomads view homeschooling as the primary strategy available to them for preparing their children for school. This strategy requires the organization of systematic work to provide methodological assistance to parents. Boarding schools are the dominant strategy for poor pastoralist families who have to accept that high turnover of teaching staff means that their children aged 6-8 years will be left without adequate supervision and may be subject to bullying and various forms of discrimination. Having a child live with family relatives is an alternative but not universally available strategy that increases the financial costs of the nomadic household and creates an additional burden for the host family. The strategy of seasonal separation of the family is the most favorable for the child. However, this strategy leads to a redistribution of responsibilities in the family or to a reorganization of the household. The study findings highlight the need to develop education models adapted to the nomadic lifestyle, improve communication infrastructure in rural areas, reduce the financial burden on families through government support, and create specialized preschool programs for six-year-olds.

 Intriduction. The archive of the Kalmyk Scientific Center of the RAS contains the manuscript “Kalmyk Folk Songs”, which includes texts recorded by the orientalist Tseren-Dordzhi Nominkhanov in the period from 1927 to 1962 among different ethnic groups. The purpose of the article is to give a general description of folk songs recorded by the scientist from the Don Kalmyk Sanzhi Ivanovich Manzhikov in 1962. The article is a continuation of the study, in three other articles the author examines recordings of songs of the Kalmyks of the Don stanitsa Grabbevskaya and Kalmyks of Bolshederbetovsky ulus, dated from 1927,  and the songs of the Xinjiang Torguts dated from 1935. Results. The songs from S. I. Manzhikov’s repertoire allow us to judge the peculiarities of the song tradition of the Don Kalmyks, which survived until the early 1960s, reflect the diversity of this genre among them and testify to the connection between the history and oral folk art of this ethnic group. They correspond to the epigraph that precedes the handwritten collection by Ts.-D. Nominkhanov, the meaning of which is that the song is the history of the people. The Don Kalmyks were familiar with the historical songs of the Kalmyks from the main ethnic group, they show knowledge of ethnic divisions, attention to the theme of “friend” ‒ “alien”. The manifestation of the so-called “compression” of time in the folklore tradition is recorded, and attribution to their tradition of what they borrowed from the main ethnic group. A special feature of the songs of the Don Kalmyks is a large number of songs on a military theme, glorifying the participants of the campaigns defending the country from enemies. This is due to the duty of the Don Kalmyks Cossacks in military service. Thanks to the collector, songs composed during the Russian-Turkish war and dated 1877 were recorded. S. I. Manzhikov has a lot of religious-themed songs in his repertoire, which testifies to the depth of the religious tradition among the Don Kalmyks and its special significance in connection with the songs of military service and the constant risks associated with it. Lyrical songs were widely distributed among the Don Kalmyks, as among other ethnic groups, they have a similar structure, are based on the use of parallelism, and most of them are dedicated to the mother, older relatives, or a girl getting married.

The article is devoted to one of the numerous Mongolian translations of individual words and phrases made in response to the appeal of the Russian and German bibliographer and linguist L. I. Bakmeister to travelers and researchers of various parts of the world. The small brochure he compiled and published in St. Petersburg in 1777, known in scholarly literature under its Latin title “Idea et desideria de colligendis linguarum speciminibus”, marked the beginning of a systematic collection of linguistic material for the preparation of the famous thesaurus “Comparative Dictionaries of All Languages and Dialects, Collected by the Hand of the Most August Personage”, the first volume of which was published ten years later — in 1787 — under the editorship of P. S. Pallas. The document entitled “Samples of the Selenginsk dialect of Mongolian language in two copies, received on August 18, 1779, and March 30, 1780” was prepared for P. S. Pallas, who in turn passed it on to L. I. Bakmeister. Subsequently, the mentioned material came into the possession of the well-known linguist and archaeographer F. Adelung, who collected various manuscript and printed sources while working on his “Survey of All Known Languages and Dialects”, published in 1820. The present article introduces into scholarly circulation the original Mongolian translation of 1779 of the words and phrases according to Bakmeister, as well as the accompanying notes by an unknown author, preserved in the collection of F. Adelung (Coll. 7) at the National Library of Russia. The text is supplied with comments and a brief analysis of its linguistic features and historical-cultural context.