Legal Procedure in the Monuments of Traditional Mongolian Law, 16th –18th Centuries: An Attempted Comparative Legal Analysis

Introduction. Mongolian codifications of 16th–18th centuries are considered to be sources of customary law. But their structure and content prove the opposite as they were  results of law-making by rulers and contained different rules on status and credentials of authorities. One of such fields was legal procedure which becomes an object for analysis in this article. Goals and Objectives. The goal of our research is analysis of procedural institutions in Mongolian codifications and their evolutions from the 16th to the 18th century. To achieve this goal, one should analyze procedural rules in these codifications, find their common and specific features, correlate the content of codifications with political situation in Mongolia and, at last, trace the evolution of procedural institutions. Materials and Research Methods. The sources for research are late medieval Mongolian legal codifications: the Code of Altan Khan, ruler of Tumet in Southern Mongolia (c. 1588), Eighteen Steppe Laws established at conferences of Khalkha rulers between the 1580s and 1620s, ‘Ik Tsaaz’ (‘The Great Code’) issued at the Congress of Oirat and Mongol princes in 1640 with additional edicts of the Zunghar ruler Galdan Boshugtu Khan in the 1670s and, finally, ‘Khalkha Jirum’ (‘The Code of Khalkha’) issued from 1709 to 1770 by conferences of rulers of the Northern Mongolia. To study this documents a number of research methods were used, namely: source study, structure functional analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal method and comparative legal analysis. Results. The legal procedure developed irregularly during the examined period. The status and credentials of authorities in the field of justice were substantially changed from the 16th throughout the 18th century, and that was connected with political processes in Mongolia. In particular, with centralization of power in the Zunghar Khanate in the 17th century and adaptation of Khalkha rulers to new political realities under the suzerainty of the Qing Empire since the end of the same century. As for other procedural institutions, such as evidences and their search, those remained, in fact, unchanged. That could be explained by that the procedural institutions were closer connected with customary law, and Mongolian rulers did not pay attention to their adaptation to the current situation. Discussion.  However, the article is no more than a problem setting, and advanced research should include sources which still are not introduced into the scientific circulation: Code of the League of Kuku-Nor (late 17th century), court practice cases in the ‘Ulaan Hatsart’ (‘Red Notebook’, 19th – early 20th centuries). Besides that, another kinds of sources should be kept in mind, e.  g.,  Manchurian law for Mongols (‘Tsaajin Bichig’ of the 17th century and ‘Lifanyuan Tse-li’ – Code of the Qing Ministry of Foreign Affairs, late 18th – early 19th centuries), Kalmyk legislation of the 18th century, Buryat law of 18th–19th centuries. These sources could help understand which procedural institution in the law of Mongolic peoples were kept unchanged and which ones were results of reception from the Russian or Chinese law.

1. Bawden C. R. A Case of murder in eighteenth-century Mongolia. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 1969. Vol. 32. No. 1. Pp. 71–90. (In Eng.)

2. Bawden C. R. The investigation of a case of attempted murder in eighteenth-century Mongolia. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 1969. Vol. 32. No. 3. Pp. 571–592. (In Eng.)

3. Bichurin N. Ya. (Hyacinth). Historical Survey of the Oirats (or Kalmyks): From the 15th Century AD to the Present. Elista: Kalmyk Book Publ., 1991. 127 p. (In Russ.)

4. Dugarova S. Zh. Historiography of the Mongolian State and Law: 13th – Early 20th Centuries. Ulan-Ude: Buryat State University, 2016. 332 p. (In Russ.)

5. Gins G. K. Mongolian State and Law in Their Historical Development. Harbin, 1932. 53 p. (In Russ.)

6. Golstunsky K. F. Mongol-Oirat Laws of 1640, Additional Edicts of Galdan Hong Tayiji and Laws Established for Volga Kalmyks during the Reign of Kalmyk Khan Donduk-Dashi. St. Petersburg: Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1880. 182 p. (In Russ.)

7. Gurlyand Ya. I. Steppe Legislation: From Ancient Times to the 17th Century. Kazan: Imperial Kazan University, 1904. 112 p. (In Russ.)

8. Heuschert-Laage D. The role of oaths in seventeenth-century Manchu-Mongolian political culture. Mongolica. 2020. Vol. XXIII. No. 1. Pp. 10–17. (In Eng.)

9. Ikh Tsaaz (‘The Great Code’): A Monument of the 17th-Century Mongol Feudal Law. Dylykov S. D. (transl., foreword, etc. ). Moscow: Nauka, 1981. 147 p. (In Russ.)

10. Kadyrbaev A. Sh. Legislative and cultural relations of Kazakhs with Kalmyks of Dzungaria, Volga Kalmyks and Khalkha Mongols during the 17th–18th centuries. Bulletin of the Kalmyk Institute for Humanities of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Oriental Studies). 2017. Vol. 33. No. 5. Pp. 2–10. (In Russ.) DOI: 10.22162/2075-7794-2017-33-5-2-10

11. Kadyrbaev A. Sh. Monuments of steppe legislation ‘Jeti-Jargy’, ‘Ikh Tsaaz’, ‘Tsaadzhin Bichig’ and cultural relations of Oirats, Kalmyks, Khalkha with Kazakhs during the Qing period. Mongolica. 2016. Vol. 17. Pp. 30–34. (In Russ.)

12. Khalkha Jirum: A Monument of 18th-Century Mongolian Feudal Law. S. Dylykov (ed.), Ts. Zhamtsarano (transl.). Moscow: Nauka, 1965. 340 p. (In Russ.)

13. Komandzhaev E. A. Legal procedure in Kalmykia: 17th–18th centuries. Vestnik Kalmytskogo instituta sotsial’no-ekonomicheskikh i pravovykh issledovaniy. 2004. No. 1. Pp. 80–86. (In Russ.)

14. Komandzhaev E. A. Mongol-Oirat laws of 1640 as a source on 17th–19th century Kalmyk law. Vestnik Kalmytskogo instituta sotsial’no-ekonomicheskikh i pravovykh issledovaniy. 2005. No. 1. Pp. 122–130. (In Russ.)

15. Leontovich F. I. Revisiting the history of law among non-Russians: the ancient Mongol-Kalmyk (or Oirat) Code of Penalties (Tsaajin Bichik). Zapiski Imperatorskogo Novorossiyskogo universiteta. 1879. Vol. 28. Supplement. Pp. 1–282. (In Russ.)

16. Nasilov A. D. Procedural Law of Mongols in the 17th c. In: History and Culture of Central Asian Peoples. Ulan-Ude: Buryat Scientific Center (Sib. Branch of RAS), 1993. Pp. 35–40. (In Russ.)

17. Natsagdorj Sh. (publ.) The Red Cover. Ulaanbaatar, 1961. 15+139 p. (In Mong.)

18. Pochekaev R. Yu. Code by Altan Khan — Mongol legal monument of the second half of the 16th century. Pravovedenie. 2011. No. 1. Pp. 119–139. (In Russ.)

19. Pochekaev R. Yu. Book review: Dugarova S. Zh. Historiography of the Mongolian State and Law, 13th – Early 20th Centuries. Monograph. Ulan-Ude: Buryat State University, 2016. 332 p. Mongolica. Vol. 18. 2017. Pp. 91–94. (In Russ.)

20. Pochekaev R. Yu. Political and legal views of Qutuqtai-Setsen Hong Tayiji (on a base of ‘The White History’). In: Cultural Heritage of the Mongols. Manuscripts and Archival Collections. Conference Proceedings (St. Petersburg; April 20–22, 2017). St. Petersburg; Ulaanbaatar, 2019. Pp. 107–120. (In Russ.)

21. Pochekaev R. Yu. The law of Qutuqtai-Setsen and specific features of development of the Mongolian law: late 16th – 17th centuries. Pravovedenie. 2013. No. 1. Pp. 204–224. (In Russ.)

22. Potanin G. N. Essays on Northwestern Mongolia: Summarizing Results of the 1876–1877 Trip. Vol. 2: Ethnographic Materials. St. Petersburg: V. Kirschbaum, 1881. 181+87 p. (In Russ.)

23. Pyurbeev G. Ts. ‘Khalkha Jirum’: A Monument of 18th-Century Mongolian Law. Vocabulary, Grammar, Transliterated Text. Moscow; Kaluga: Eydos, 2012. 270 p. (In Russ.)

24. Ryazanovsky V. A. Mongolian Law, Predominantly Customary One. Harbin: N.  Chinarev, 1931. 306+42 p. (In Russ.)

25. Skrynnikova T. D. The noyons of Khalkha, 17th century. In: Z. K. Kasyanenko – the Teacher and Mongolist. Conference Proceedings (St. Petersburg; September 30 – October 1, 2015). St. Petersburg; Ulaanbaatar, 2016. Pp. 160–168. (In Russ.)

26. Spassky G. I. (comp.) Collected materials on Siberia and neighboring territories. Sibirskiy vestnik. 1819. No. 6. Pp. 45–84. (In Russ.)

27. The Eighteen Steppe Laws: A Monument of the 16th–17th Century Mongol Law. A. Nasilov (transl.). St. Petersburg: Peterburgskoe Vostokovedenie, 2002. 160 p. (In Russ.)

28. Tsengel H. The Legal Code of Kokenuur League. Beijing, 2009. 521 p. (In Mong.)

29. Zhamtsarano Ts., Turunov A. Written law of Mongolian tribes: a survey of monuments. Sbornik trudov Gosudarstvennogo Irkutskogo universiteta. 1920. No. 6. Pp. 1–13. (In Russ.)

30. Zlatkin I. Ya. A History of the Zunghar Khanate: 1635–1758. 2nd ed. Moscow: Nauka, 1983. 333 p. (In Russ.)